Poverty Reduction Through The Local Level Environmental Sciences Essay

In Nepal 80 of the entire population are agricultural base. The Agricultural plan focal points on poorness relief and bettering nutrient security, nutrition and environment improving. Across undertaking many have International and National non-governmental organisation are speaking of concern development services ( BDS ) or value -chain attack. The BDS attack includes an accent in on constructing the capacity of supply concatenation endeavors to fabricate and administer agricultural equipment and inputs that are suited for smallholders, and set uping private sector markets. I/NGOS build the capacity of private endeavors to supply embedded preparation services for husbandmans with the sale of imputes or the purchase of end products. For illustration, micro irrigation equipment traders train husbandmans to utilize irrigation system that they sell and besides provide agribusiness advice for system purchasers. Many of I/NGOs attack besides include supplying proficient aid to early engineering adoptive parents to make demand for concern services. These attacks besides includes strong Public Private Partnership ( PPP ) with the governmental to guarantee that public goods such as market information, substructure, research, policy, H2O beginning development, and other public services to better bomber sector public presentation are supplied.Market OrientedNepal is in alone place to quickly increase agribusiness incomes through development of high value trade goods for export markets. Nepal has a comparative advantage in high -value trade goods due to agro-climate conditions that allow for off -season/ low -cost production for huge South Asiatic Markets. Despite holding identified this scheme more than 15th – 18th old ages ago. Nepal lags behind in incorporating smallholder husbandman for export chances. Nepal remains a net importer for many trade goods for which it has comparative advant age. Most of the I/NGOs are taking lead to develop systems that enable smallholder to take advantage of export chances across undertakings. For illustrations one of the I/NGO ‘s has been lunching agribusiness addition incomes and better nutrient security and nutrition progarmme coverage ‘s in 40 District out of 75 District in Nepal. Their programme coverage straight 85000 families ( 600000 people ) to get away poorness and set up invigorated sub sectors that will be grow sustainable, supplying new chances for 1000000s of hapless smallholders into the hereafter. Despite the hard insurgence conditions in Nepal the Agriculture programe had a enormous twelvemonth in 2004, spread outing plan activities and support, developing new enterprises, and holding a really strong development impact. Impact 2004, I/NGO ‘s work straight with 1000s of group of family in increasing one-year incomes by about $ 100.00 per family and set uping supply ironss and market channels that were recognized with high degree visitants to field site.Support for peace BuildingOne of the major causes fueling struggle in Nepal is a deficiency of economic chances and a failure of authorities and donor-supported development plans to make deprived communities and the rural hapless. A recent study for NDI found that the figure one concern of the Nepali people was a deficiency of economic chance followed by the increased force. These I/NGO ‘s are working to supply commercial chances to hapless and disadvantage families. Opportunities such as horticultural production are good suited to the rural hapless who have surplus labour relation to set down resources as non-timber wood merchandises and harvests such as java and tea, and farm animal use fringy lands. These plans are triping the authorities to present services to the rural hapless and are demoing that markets can work to the aid the hapless and deprived flight poorness.Inaugural support for MicronutrientSome I/NGO ‘s has initiated activities to turn to micronutrient lacks in rural diets using agribusiness solutions. The broad impact of micronutrient lacks on cognitive development and human wellness is one of the most urgent jobs for the hapless in Nepal and developing states. It is now recognized that micronutrient lacks and poorness are reciprocally reenforcing, with micronutrients lack being a major cause every bit good as a consequence of poorness. These I/NGO ‘s participated in the different International Conference on micronutrient lack in Kathmandu and development linkages wi th effects to turn to this major job. Some I/NGO ‘s are working to present research consequences into supply ironss that serve smallholders such as appropriate micronutrient dirt amendments, assortments with greater micronutrient content and developing more diversified diets. Increased vegetable production has besides reduced local veggie monetary values enabling many more hapless families to increase their vegetable ingestion and better their nutritionary position.Associating Clean EnergyI/NGO ‘s Agriculture developments a partnership with their Clean Energy plan to associate clean energy engineerings to agriculture activities. I/NGO ‘s are working to development and use appropriate solar drying engineerings for gardening green goods, gasification engineering for application of heat in distillment procedures and drying, and the usage of electricity for irrigation pumping. Few programmes are besides join forcesing to set up Internet information services kiosks in d istant countries.Agribusiness MarketsI/NGO ‘s took a lead in using ICT solutions to associate smallholder to markets. The Nepal Tree Crop Global Development Alliance ( NTC-GDA ) assisted in development of a tea publicity web site for an industry association ( www.nepaltea.com.np ) , Business Development Services-Marketing and Production Services ( BDS-MaPa ) is working to make the same for an non-timber wood merchandises ( NTFP ) industry association, smallholder Irrigation Markets Initiative ( SIMI ) has linked with authorities and community wireless to supply practical monetary value information that is assisting smallholders make determinations, and circulating market information ( www.agripricenepal.com.np ) , and to develop trade fiting e-commerce services.Programme SuccessI/NGO ‘s have straight benefited 1000s of families with preparation and aid. Each of these families represents success narratives of households that have increased their income and realized their possible better.Off -Season Vegetables ProductionOff Season vegetable cultivation has a high potency in the mountain countries. Vegetable harvests have added significance due to the of import engagement of adult females in all facets of production. Off-season production of vegetable bid monetary value two to three times higher than chief season production the same. The successful cultivation of off-season veggies in Nepal has made a important impact on the local economic system with the supply of veggies in the domestic markets. The chief fresh veggies in high demand during the off-season are tomatoes, Brassica oleracea botrytis, chou, pepper chilies and cucumber etc.Case StudyOrganic small town in the stateThe adult females framers of Thaligaon small town have made committedness to set up the whole small town as organic small town by avoiding chemical fertiliser and pesticides. For this they have started acquiring developing on organic direction, usage of compost and piss. The cons truct and induction behind this instance goes to DADO, Kathmandu who helped to associate this plan with FtF Nepal and developed a SOW to construct co-ops capacity, cognition and proficient cognize how about organic framing. Further a unpaid cooperation signifier FtF plan enhanced strength to travel further towards organic small town. Actually this is non the instance of far distant small town. This small town is merely 11 Kilometer from Kathmandu metropolis and 25 proceedingss from the nearest route caputs. With induction from the adult females the co-op with 28 members named Panchakanya Krishi Sahakari Sastha Ltd was established in early 2004 with consciousness of and concerned about nutrient safety and household wellness. The members of the concerted peculiarly adult females were concerned of the wellness and fiscal benefit of organic framing and hence determined to turn their green goods in organic manner and set up as co-ops. With their committednesss, major betterments took topographic point in the small town. Government supported to build 10000-meter route to transport veggies by supplying NRs. 470,000 ( US $ 6714.00 ) . Agriculture office provided organic preparation, developed resource individual and provided continued backstopping. Likewise voluntary from FtF plan provided expertness in organic framing and organic enfranchisement. FtF has besides helped the co-op to set up linkages between the â€Å" National Cooperative Development Board ( NCDB ) and the Department of Agriculture ( DoA ) . Due to this the concerted received NRs 100,000 ( US $ 1428.00 ) recognition from NCDB to construct a concerted organic centre in the small town and building is underway. NCDB besides committed to back up the co-op through preparations and organisational development. With all these back up husbandman of this small town are confident to turn organic veggies, they are cognizant of systematic direction, can different to turn organic inorganic and capable of packaging, rating and selling of organic veggies, They have besides made addition in income i.e. from NRs. 3000-4000 ( US $ 500.00 -700.00 ) 512 square metre before and NRs. 5000-7000 ( US $ 750.00- 1050.00 ) 512 square metre after organic direction. Now they are besides capable of supplying input to other groups as a resource individual. Therefore such type of committedness to be as organic agriculturist will hold positive impact on wellness, income, and the environment sector. The acquisition from this co-op will be an illustration for sustainable production.Small IrrigationI/NGO ‘s working with IDE has demonstrated on a big graduated table the value of micro irrigation in leting smallholders to command H2O resources enabling them to take advantage of market chance in gardening /NTEP merchandises. In Nepal I/NGO ‘s promoted micro irrigation engineerings including the pedal ( pes ) pump for the Terai and drip irrigation, sprinkler, and low cost H2O storage in the hills. These really low cost engineerings were developed by spouse IDE and are wholly produced by the private sector in Nepal. I/NGO ‘s and IDE focal point on developing the supply concatenation fro-micro irrigation equipment supplying generic publicity that private sector providers can non afford to originate. In the Nepali hills SIMI has identified the effectivity if associating micro irrigation to small-scale community H2O development trough multi usage piped H2O systems that supply H2O fro-domestic usage, farm animal, and micro irrigation. Nepal SIMI working with communities development 16 such systems in 3 hill territories. IDE -development H2O storage armored combat vehicle options have reduced the cost of these systems. Average costs for SIMI piped H2O systems were approximately $ 80.00 per family. In the hill micro irrigation users ‘ first twelvemonth returns exceeded $ 100.00 including equipment cost ; this means that communities can retrieve the full cost of their H2O system within one twelvemonth.Research ProgrammeI/NGO ‘s are keeping its historical roots in agribusiness research with active plans working the research community focused on associating research consequences to agro inputs supply ironss for such merchandises as pheromone traps, micronutrient applications , intercrossed tomato seed development, dirt solarisation, hail rock protection, station crop engineerings, java pulpers, distilechnologies, and drying engineerings.Sustainable AgribusinessI/NGO ‘s undertakings are working to present IPM technologies into the supply concatenation and have developed enfranchisement systems for smallholder organic tea and aromatic oils. They have pioneered an effectual attack to aggregating smallholder green goods. Farmer groups set up selling commissions that develop aggregation centres. The centres have linkages with consumers and bargainers. Many direction commissions ‘ members are adult females in including the financial officer and president. These centres are now formal co-op and are salvaging financess for in break. BDS: Business Development Servicess NDI: ICT: Information Communication Technology NTC-GDA The Nepal Tree Crop Global Development Alliance BDS-MaPa: Business Development Services-Marketing and Production Servicess NTFP: Non-Timber Forest Products

My Hero In History Essay

â€Å"A hero is a man who does what he can.† (Romaine Rolland) The true definition of hero is a man of distinguished valour. Bravery, courage, boldness, daring, resolute, and aptitude in war are a hero’s characteristics. However, a hero is understood to be different to everyone. â€Å"The legacy of heroes is the memory of a great name and the inheritance of a great example.† (Benjamin Disraeli) Some of them are born, others are made. Many are still living while many others have long been gone. Important dates and events are usually marked red in the calendar to remind us of their birth or death anniversary. During the celebration of these events, program speakers take turns admiring to high heavens whatever good they had done for the county. â€Å"True heroism consists in being superior to the ills of life, in whatever shape they may challenge us to combat† (Napoleon) When one thinks of heroes, names such as Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Allama Iqbal, Muhammad Bin Qasim, and Alexander often come to mind. These people had done a lot of favours, courage, helps, and more of all things for the people who needed them. The definition of heroism changes with the context of time. Heroes of the past are not necessarily heroes of present time and vice versa. But there are some people who have made their mark on history. Among those legends Muhammad Ali Jinnah is my hero. â€Å"Few individuals significantly alter the course of history. Fewer still modify the map of the world. Hardly anyone can be credited with creating a nation-state. Muhammad Ali Jinnah did all three.† (Stanley Wolpert) Quad-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah is the founder of Pakistan. He was born in Karachi on 25 December 1876. His father was a merchant. He received early education at Sindh-Madrasa-tul-Islam in Karachi. After that, he passed the matriculation at the age of 16 from Bombay. He moved to England after marriage, at the age of 17. In 1896 he returned to India as barrister when his father’s business was ruined. He started practice in Karachi but soon shifted to Bombay. â€Å"The heroic soul does not sell its justice and its nobleness.† (Ralph Waldo Emerson) He became a member of Indian National Congress. Soon he left the Congress and joined Muslim League when he realized that Congress is not sincere to Muslims. He fought for the rights of Muslims. â€Å"A hero is someone who understands the responsibility that comes with his freedom.† (Bob Dylan) Quaid-e-Azam was a dynamic leader. He devoted himself fully to the affairs of the Muslim  League. He worked for the separate state for the Muslims. He continued his struggle to achieve this object. Pakistan came into being on 14th August 1947. â€Å"Self-trust is the essence of Heroism.† (Ralph Waldo Emerson) Quaid-e-Azam became the first Governor General of Pakistan. He worked day and night for his county. He fell ill and died on 11th September 1948. He was a Muslim and hero. â€Å"A hero is some who has given his or her life to something bigger than oneself.† (Joseph Campbell) Quaid-e-Azam will always live in the hearts of the Pakistanis as† The Father of the Nation.† â€Å"Heroism is the divine relation which, in all times, unties a great man to other men.† His words, â€Å"Unity, Faith and Discipline† will always inspire the people in their struggle for nation building. â€Å"A man of courage is also full of faith.† (Cicero)

A Resource-Based View of International Human Resources: Toward a Framework of Integrative and Creative Capabilities

Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies (CAHRS) CAHRS Working Paper Series Cornell University ILR School Year 2005 A Resource-Based View Of International Human Resources: Toward A Framework of Integrative and Creative Capabilities Shad S. Morris Cornell University Scott A. Snell Cornell University Patrick M. Wright Cornell University This paper is posted at [email  protected] http://digitalcommons. ilr. cornell. edu/cahrswp/284 CAHRS at Cornell University 187 Ives Hall Ithaca, NY 14853-3901 USA Tel. 607 255-9358 www. ilr. cornell. edu/CAHRS WORKING PAPER SERIES A Resource-Based View of International Human Resources: Toward a Framework of Integrative and Creative Capabilities Shad S. Morris Scott A. Snell Patrick M. Wright Working Paper 05 – 16 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 A Resource-Based View Of International Human Resources: Toward A Framework of Integrative and Creative Capabilities Shad S. Morris Cornell University School of Industrial and Labor Relations 393 Ives Hall Ithaca, NY 14853 (607) 255-7622 [email  protected] edu Scott A. Snell Cornell University Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies (CAHRS) 393 Ives Hall Ithaca, NY 14853 (607) 255-4112 scott. [email  protected] edu Patrick M. Wright Cornell University Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies (CAHRS) 393 Ives Hall Ithaca, NY 14853 (607) 255-3429 [email  protected] edu http://www. ilr. cornell. edu/cahrs This paper has not undergone formal review or approval of the faculty of the ILR School. It is intended to make results of Center research av ailable to others interested in preliminary form to encourage discussion and suggestions. Most (if not all) of the CAHRS Working Papers are available for reading at the Catherwood Library. For information on what’s available link to the Cornell Library Catalog: http://catalog. library. cornell. edu if you wish. Page 2 International Human Resources Abstract CAHRS WP05-16 Drawing on organizational learning and MNC perspectives, we extend the resourcebased view to address how international human resource management provides sustainable competitive advantage. We develop a framework that emphasizes and extends traditional assumptions of the resource-based view by identifying the learning capabilities necessary for a complex and changing global environment. These capabilities address how MNCs might both create new HR practices in response to local environments and integrate existing HR practices from other parts of the firm (affiliates, regional headquarters, and global headquarters). In an effort to understand the nature of such capabilities, we discuss aspects of human capital, social capital, and organizational capital that might be linked to their development. Page 3 International Human Resources Introduction CAHRS WP05-16 Few will argue against the importance of international human resource management (IHRM) in today’s multinational corporation (MNC). A wide range of issues—that varies from global sourcing and off-shoring to regional trade agreements and labor standards to strategic alliances and innovation—all point to the vital nature of IHRM in today’s global economy. In fact, some observers have suggested that how firms manage their work forces is among the strongest predictors of successful versus unsuccessful MNCs (cf. , Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989; Doz & Prahalad, 1986; Hedlund, 1986). Researchers have adopted a number of different theoretical approaches for studying IHRM. Not surprisingly, the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm has emerged as perhaps the predominant perspective (Wright, Dunford, and Snell, 2002). RBV is particularly attractive to IHRM researchers in that it focuses directly on the potential value of a firm’s internal asset stocks for conceiving and executing various strategies. This perspective departs from traditional I/O economic models of competitive advantage that focus on the structure of markets as the primary determinant of firm performance (Barney, 1991; Wernerfelt, 1984). Also in contrast with I/O economic models, the RBV is based on the assumption that resources are (1) distributed heterogeneously across firms and (2) remain imperfectly mobile over time. Because these asset stocks are unequal, there is the potential for comparative advantage. And when the resources are immobile, that advantage may be difficult to appropriate or imitate, thereby conferring a sustainable advantage In the context of MNCs, the premises of resource heterogeneity and immobility have particular relevance. While the RBV typically focuses on resource heterogeneity across firms, MNCs are unique in that they possess heterogeneity within their asset stocks as well. Because they operate in multiple environments, MNCs are likely to possess variations in both their people and practices that reflect local requirements, laws, and cultures. This variation is a potential source of advantage at a local level, and can provide a global advantage to the MNC as a whole if the knowledge, skills, and capabilities can be leveraged appropriately. Page 4 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 However, while heterogeneous resources are potentially immobile across firms, they may also be immobile within firms (MNCs). Given that scholars have consistently noted the difficulties of integrating people and practices within MNCs (e. g. , Szulanski, 1996; McWilliams, Van Fleet, & Wright, 2001), the challenge of integration remains one of the more perplexing organizational and strategic issues. It is therefore somewhat surprising that IHRM researchers have not addressed this issue more directly. The purpose of this chapter is to summarize the literature on RBV and IHRM by addressing the ways in which resource heterogeneity and immobility provide potential advantages to MNCs. However, we also hope to extend the RBV in this context by addressing some of the primary challenges of—and capabilities needed to—create resources and integrate them across business units within the MNC. In this sense, we draw upon the knowledge-based view of the firm (KBV) and organizational learning perspectives to look at how practices are created and integrated on a global scale (Grant, 1996; Teece, Pisano, & Shuen, 1997). To organize this discussion, we break the chapter down into three parts: First, we review how the RBV has been applied to IHRM issues to date and discuss the underlying assumptions of this research. Second, we extend the RBV logic to more appropriately deal with issues of practice integration and creation within a globally dynamic environment by turning focus to aspects of learning capabilities. Finally, we discuss the implications for future research and where this extended view of RBV might improve research on a firm’s human resources. IHM, People, Practices, And Competitive Advantage Discussions of IHRM within the RBV framework focus on both the workforce (i. e. , the people) as well as the HR function (i. e. , the structures, policies and practices) (e. g. , Evans, Pucik, & Basoux, 2002; Fey & Bjorkman, 2001; MacDuffie, 1995; Schuler, Dowling, & De Cieri, 1993). To have a sustainable competitive advantage a firm must first possess people with different and better skills and knowledge than its competitors or it must possess HR practices that allow for differentiation from competitors. Second, these practices or skills and abilities should not be easy for competitors to duplicate or imitate (Wright, Dunford, & Snell, 2001). Page 5 International Human Resources Managing Global Workforces CAHRS WP05-16 Building on the assumptions of heterogeneity and immobility, scholars systematically stress the strategic contributions of people’s knowledge and skills to the performance of firms and sustained competitive advantage (Boxall, 1996). In fact, Barney (1991) developed a model to show how specific assets can be strategically identified to lead to sustainable competitive advantage. Building on this model, McWilliams, Van Fleet, and Wright (2001) argue that human resources, defined as the entire pool of employees, present a unique source of advantage in comparison to domestic labor pools in terms of value, rarity, inimitability, and nonsubstitutability (VRIN). Given the VRIN framework, McWilliams et al. (2001) argued that firms can benefit from a global workforce in two ways: (1) capitalizing on the global labor pools, and (2) exploiting the cultural synergies of a diverse workforce. First, global (heterogeneous) labor pools potentially provide superior human capital. This is because firms can draw from different labor pools to match the different needs of the firm (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989). For example, some labor pools may have workers who, on average, have higher cognitive ability or have had greater access to education and training. An MNC could potentially draw from the highest quality labor pools for those functions that require high cognitive ability and education and training (McWilliams et al. , 2001). Second, the use of heterogeneous labor pools potentially increases the quality of global business decision making. When an MNC draws from its multiple labor pools it has the potential to a build diverse and flexible cadre of managers that are better able to bring different perspectives to a decision than a management group based solely from the parent country (Ricks, 1993). That diversity also enables management to be flexible in applying their skills throughout the different parts of the firm. Wright and Snell (1998) discussed theses advantages in terms of resource flexibility and coordination flexibility. While McWilliams et al. (2001) highlighted the benefits of human resource heterogeneity and immobility; they also point out the difficulty in transferring and integrating these resources Page 6 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 within the MNC. Drawing on Szulanski’s (1996) concept of stickiness, they note that the exchanges are made more difficult by â€Å"the lack of absorptive capacity of the recipient, causal ambiguity, and an arduous relationship between the source and the recipient† (Szulanski, 1996: 36). Yet, little research exists discussing how internal stickiness can be overcome in order to maximize the benefits of a global workforce while overcoming the challenges of integration and coordination. Managing Global HR Functions Placing people as the source of sustainable competitive advantage moves us to the dilemma of how best to manage their knowledge, skills, and abilities. Within the RBV literature, issues of resource heterogeneity and immobility underlie the inevitable tension between local responsiveness and global integration in MNCs (cf. Bae & Lawler, 2000; Brewster, 1999; Fey & Bjorkman, 2001; Sparrow, Schuler & Jackson, 1994). Local responsiveness and the value derived from customization implies variation—i. e. , heterogeneity—within the MNC. Global efficiency, on the other hand, requires integration across business units. However, given the assumption of resource immobility, this integration is not always easy to achieve. Schuler et al. (1993) captured the e ssence of these tradeoffs by highlighting the relationships between internal operations and interunit linkages. From the standpoint of internal operations, each overseas affiliate must operate as effectively as possible relative to the competitive strategy of the MNC. This means that these affiliates can offer advantages to the MNC by recognizing and developing HR practices that are appropriate for their local markets, employment laws, cultural traditions, and the like. While internal operations at the local level are important, the MNC must also establish interunit linkages to gain efficiencies of scale and scope across several different countries. This suggests that while overseas affiliates can generate advantages locally, there are also substantial advantages that can be gained globally through integrated HR practices. Each is important, but each carries with it a different set of organizational requirements. These requirements point directly to issues relevant for HRM. Page 7 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 Extending these ideas, Taylor, Beechler, and Napier (1996) describe how MNCs might develop a more integrative approach to HRM. The objective of this strategy is to share best practices from all parts of the firm (not just corporate) to create a worldwide system. While there are allowances for local differentiation, the focus is on substantial global integration. Differentiation provides both the potential for local response and customization, as well as the variety of ideas and practices needed for innovation at the global level. However, integration through coordination, communication, and learning is not always easily achieved in this context. Ironically, the very characteristics that provide resource-based advantage at the local level actually complicate integration at the global level. The ability of firms to gain efficiencies of scope and scale at a global level is made more difficult by resource heterogeneity, and this challenge is exacerbated by resource immobility. The challenge then for the transnational firm is to identify how firms can preserve variety (and local customization) while simultaneously establishing a foundation for integration and efficiency. As mentioned by McWilliams et al. (2001) very few scholars have addressed the â€Å"stickiness† issue involved in balancing the global and local tension. Taylor et al. 1996) allude to such integration difficulties when they note: â€Å"The reason firms move toward an exportive rather than an integrative SIHRM orientation†¦is that the mechanism to identify and transfer the best HRM practices in their overseas affiliates are not in place. Such mechanisms as having regional or global meetings of affiliate HR directors, transferring HRM materials (e. g. , performance appraisal forms to affiliates) or posting of the HR director of the affiliates to the HQs of the firm were not developed†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p. 972). These same capability issues are raised by McWilliams et al. 2001) when they discuss the major causes of internal stickiness being lack of absorptive capacity, causal ambiguity, and arduous relationships between the source and recipient. In both examples, barriers to global practice integration are raised and discussed, but not resolved. This issue is addressed more fully below. Page 8 International Human Resources IHM And Capabilities CAHRS WP05-16 Given the importance—and difficulty—of integrating human resources at a global level, while preserving the uniqueness and heterogeneity at the local level, it seems reasonable to discuss these issues in the context of competitive capabilities. Based on the knowledge based view (KBV) of firms, that emphasizes the need to acquire and integrate knowledge, we suggest two such capabilities (see Figure 1). First, knowledge integration capability refers to a firm’s ability to transfer and coordinate human resources across affiliates in a way that utilizes economies of scale and scope while allowing and promoting responsiveness to the local environment. Second, knowledge creation capability refers to a firms’ ability to create new and potentially innovative practices at the local level. Figure 1 IHRM: People, Practices, and Capabilities Focus Theories RBV: Focus on individual resources of knowledge, skills, and abilities RBV and Competencies: Focus on combined resources of HR practices Strategic Question Workforce: What are the knowledge, skills, and abilities that are heterogeneous and immobile? HR Practices and Systems: What are the HR practices and systems that are heterogeneous and immobile? Learning Capabilities: How can HR practices and systems be created and integrated to preserve heterogeneity and immobility? Sources McWilliams, Van Fleet, & Wright, 2001 People Practices Taylor, Beechler, & Napier, 1996 KBV and Organizational Capabilities: Capabilities Focus on learning processes and capabilities Chadwick & Cappelli, 1999 Knowledge Integration Capability Ironically, while learning capability is one of the key dimensions of the Bartlett and Ghoshal (1989) framework of transnational organizations, most IHRM researchers have made only passing mention of how firms share and integrate best practice within the MNC. Snell, Youndt, and Wright (1996) argued that, particularly in dynamic environments, organizational learning may be the only way to ensure that resources sustain their value and uniqueness over Page 9 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 time. In essence, the capability to integrate HR practices better than competitors may be a key source of sustainable competitive advantage (cf. , Kogut & Zander, 1992). In the sections below, we frame the key factors underlying knowledge integration capability in terms of organizational capital, social capital, and human capital. Organizational Capital. Youndt, Subramaniam, and Snell (2004) define organizational capital as the institutionalized knowledge and codified experiences residing within an organization. Artifacts of organizational capital include an organization’s reliance on manuals and databases to preserve knowledge, along with the establishment of structures, processes, and routines that encourage repeated use of this knowledge (Hansen, Hohria, & Tierney, 1999). As an integration mechanism, organizational capital allows the firm to preserve knowledge as incoming employees replace those leaving. An example of such an artifact might be a â€Å"lessons learned† database to ensure that lessons learned by one group can be made accessible for all groups. Based on MNC research, in order to improve the integration of knowledge within an MNC relative to the speed of its diffusion or imitation by competitors, firms invest in ways to make knowledge explicit by encoding its use and replicating it in rules and documentation (Kogut & Zander, 1993). Other forms of organizational capital are likely to represent detailed, company-wide routines on how new HR practices should be integrated by all affiliates. These routines may detail how practices should be shared to reduce the variance and time it takes to implement each new approach, and thereby, improve the overall efficiency of knowledge integration (March, 1991). Similarly, organizations typically implement information systems to provide affiliates with a common platform for HR processes and practices (Snell, Stueber & Lepak, 2002). These systems, processes, and routines ensure that: (1) practices are implemented routinely through established data collection procedures and (2) practices are rapidly disseminated throughout the entire MNC with minimal costs (Daft & Weick, 1984). In terms of integration capability, then, organizational capital provides a basis for sharing and Page 10 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 institutionalizing knowledge across affiliates. However, it may work against efforts to preserve heterogeneity at the sub-unit level. Social Capital. Social capital—defined as the knowledge embedded within social networks—also plays a potentially valuable role in the integration capability of MNCs (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998). For example, Szulanski (1995) found that one of the biggest obstacles to transfer knowledge in MNCs is the poor relationship between sources and recipients of information. Along this line, Ghoshal and Bartlett (1989) empirically showed that knowledge sharing and integration could not occur without the existence of strong social connections. The importance of social capital for integration capability is found in research by Kostova and Roth (2002), who concluded that successful practice adoption is largely dependent upon relationships based on trust and shared identity. Trust provides the motive to interact with others, while shared identity provides an overlapping understanding of what is important to share. Both of these elements of social capital would seem vital for integration capability. And importantly, neither of them would de facto require the loss of local autonomy. Human Capital. While organizational and social capital are both potentially important resources underlying a firm’s integration capability, Teece (1977) argued that one of the principle obstacles to transfer and integration is lack of prior experience and knowledge (i. e. , human capital). Research by Szulanski (1996) and Tsai (2002), for example, has shown that knowledge sharing and integration is facilitated when respective parties have the absorptive capacity or prior experience to understand related ideas (Szulansk, 1996; Tsai, 2002). In the context of MNCs, Haas (2004) showed that groups with large amounts of international experience are more likely to integrate knowledge from other parts of the organization than those that do not. Similarly, Gregersen and Black (1992) found that not only is international experience important for integration, but when it is coupled with experience in corporate headquarters affiliates are more likely to maintain allegiance to the overall goals of the firm. These international and corporate skills and knowledge are often gained through transfers and rotational assignments that enable the HR function to develop a more complex Page 11 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 and global orientation. This provides them with the ability to more systematically manage the integration process (Kedia & Bhagat, 1988). Such forms of human capital can also correct any tendency of HR subunits to assume that the situation in the host country is unique; thus avoiding the not-invented-here syndrome. The upshot of this discussion s is that a firm’s integration capability likely depends on a combination of human, social, and organizational capital. Social and organizational capital are alternative—and potentially complementary—resources for knowledge and practice sharing. Human capital, in turn, is important for absorbing or acquiring that knowledge. As firms develop the capability to integrate existing practices they potentially can achieve economies of scale and scope through HRM. And when these integrative mechanisms preserve resource heterogeneity at a local level, it may lead to a more rapid response to a global environment and greater potential for competitive advantage. Figure 2 Capabilities: Creative and Integrative Focus Market Assumption Value Proposition Sources Integrative Capabilities Stable Market: Resources must be combined and integrated to maintain an advantage Combining resources in ways that others cannot copy creates benefits arising from scarcity Taylor, Beechler, & Napier, 1996; McWilliams, Van Fleet, & Wright, 2001 Creative Capabilities Dynamic Market: Resources must be reconfigured and created to maintain an advantage Developing new resources that competitors don’t yet have creates benefits arising from innovation Chadwick & Cappelli, 1999; Snell, Youndt, and Wright; 1996 Page 12 International Human Resources Knowledge Creation Capability CAHRS WP05-16 In the context of organizational learning and the KBV, it is important to distinguish knowledge integration capability from knowledge creation capability. Just because a firm is able to integrate practices across affiliates does not mean that it will be able to create new practices as well (See Figure 2). Creation capabilities allow the MNC to develop new practices that lead to resource heterogeneity in the first place. While few HRM researchers have mentioned the importance of integration mechanisms, fewer still have discussed the importance of creation mechanisms that renew a firm’s stock of HR practices. This is despite the fact that as firms continually integrate practices, it is imperative that new practices are created and developed that allows for innovation and continuous improvement in a changing environment. Therefore, in global environments characterized by rapid change and increasing competition, static concepts of heterogeneity may no longer be sufficient to explain (and sustain) a competitive advantage. An ongoing debate in strategy is whether any static view of resources can really explain a competitive advantage that is sustainable over time (Lippman & Rumelt, 1982). For example, Grant (1996) argues that idiosyncratic advantages naturally erode over time. This debate is especially relevant in the global environment where what might create a competitive advantage at one point in time or in one location, may not at another point in time or location. Hence, it is vital that MNCs develop the capability to create and renew HR practices in order to maintain a competitive advantage. Ghoshal & Bartlett (1988) stated that MNCs â€Å"create† new products, practices, or systems locally, using specific mechanisms to respond to local circumstances. Creating local HR practices lies at the heart of an MNC’s capability to be responsive to the unique and changing opportunities of different environments. Below, we discuss how human capital, social capital, and organizational capital might influence the knowledge creation capability of new HR practices. (See Figure 3 for an overview of mechanisms that influence knowledge integration and creation capabilities). Page 13 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 Figure 3 Capabilities: Human Capital, Social Capital, Organizational Capital Human Capital Social Capital Organizational Capital Creative Capability †¢In-depth local experience †¢International experience outside of corporate †¢Broad internal network range †¢Broad external network range †¢Local Market Relationships †¢Localized routines †¢Creative processes and systems †¢Norms of informality †¢Overarching principles or guidelines Increasing Influence on Creative Capability Integrative Capability Increasing Influence on Integrative Capability †¢Absorptive capacity †¢International and corporate experience †¢Internal Social connections †¢Shared perceptions and identity †¢Internal Trust †¢Company-wide rules and routines †¢Corporate culture of sharing †¢Interactive technologies †¢Data collection system Human Capital. The knowledge and experience—i. e. , human capital—of the people within the HR function is a key factor in new HR practice creation—whether of new practice ideas, or of improvements in the practices (Lepak & Snell, 1999). For example, HR functions possessing large amounts of local knowledge and experience should be able to effectively create practices on their own in response to the various, changing environments. This localized experience helps them to understand the needs of local clients and suppliers, which allows them to develop practices that are unique to each region or country, and hence, heterogeneous across the firm. Page 14 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 International experiences are also important for creating new HR practices. For example, because international experience is often highly valued in MNCs (e. g. , Mendenhall & Stahl, 2000), people with international skills and knowledge are more likely to be seen by others as being confident and willing to share divergent opinions and advocate for their own position (Stasser, Stewart, & Wittenbaum, 1995). Moreover, Gregersen & Black (1992) showed that people with strong experience in many international settings and limited experience in corporate are more likely to make changes based on local demands rather than pressures from central parts of the firm. This is most likely due to the people’s array of international experiences that have detached them from an allegiance with the company as a whole. Social Capital. Specific aspects of social capital have been argued to play a role in knowledge creation. For example, while Hansen (2002) argued that social networks provide an important conduit for the sharing of knowledge, he also argued that such networks play a role in knowledge creation because they inform network members about the existence, location, and significance of new knowledge. Burt (1982) found that networks comprising a broader range of contacts will have a more heterogeneous base of information and knowledge to draw from. While such wide networks may not always facilitate a deep flow of knowledge, they offer different reference points for HR members to make comparisons and explore new ideas. A firm’s ability to find new opportunities is likely to be a function of multiple local contacts. HR affiliates often have critical links with local vendors and, perhaps, competing HR groups that allow them to pursue local opportunities (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989; Hedlund, 1986). Birkinshaw (1997) refers to these as relationships within the ‘local market’. Within the local market an affiliate is likely to be embedded in different types of relationships (Ghoshal & Bartlett, 1990; Ghoshal & Nohria, 1989). McEvily and Zaheer (1999) argue that because each part of the MNC maintains different local patterns of network linkages, they are exposed to new knowledge, ideas, and opportunities. Organizational Capital. In many cases, organizational capital may actually hinder knowledge creation capability. The formalized processes, systems, structures, etc. ave a Page 15 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 tendency to reinforce existing routines and obviate against variation and change that engender creativity. However, in some instances, organizational capital may facilitate flexibility in the course of actions that allow a firm to attend to environmental cues. This is especially true when employees are encouraged to take action that supersede compan y-wide, standardized routines in favor of localized response that allows knowledge assimilation from the local environment (Daft & Weick, 1984). For example, parts of the firm may develop creative processes and systems to identify problems, develop hypotheses, communicate ideas to others, and contradict what would normally be expected (Torrence, 1988). Grant (1996) argued that such creative routines and processes offer an efficient framework for people to create new, situation-specific practices by utilizing local perspectives in developing practices for the firm. Though potentially problematic for the integrative capability, localized routines and creative processes help affiliates relate better with local vendors, clients, and competitors by providing a set of expectations and processes that encourage HR groups to turn to the surrounding environment. For example, an HR affiliate may have developed a simple manual or informal norm of what to do when developing a new practice. Such a routine is likely to leave many gaps in exact steps to follow, but provide an overview or value to help the HR group be innovative. This simple routine allows the local HR group to assimilate knowledge more quickly from its employees and develop practices to meet their needs. In summary, these aspects of human capital, social capital, and organizational capital help us identify how the knowledge integration and creation capabilities might occur within an MNC. Some of these forms of capital are more useful depending upon the capability it is supporting, and ironically, some of these mechanisms that influence integration might actually hinder knowledge creation and vice versa. For example, firms heavy in local knowledge and experiences and weak in international experiences might have a negative affect on a firm’s ability to integrate practices across the various parts of the firm. Such strong human capital is likely to promote the not-invented-here syndrome through the affiliate’s strong belief and experience base dealing exclusively with the local environment. Similarly, rigid forms of Page 16 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 organizational capital, in terms of standardized routines and shared electronic databases, might deter the various parts of HR to develop and create practices on their own. This could largely stem from the fact that so much structure and support for integration is in place that HR groups fail to find time to bring about new practices or adapt existing practices to the local environment. Implications For Research And Theory The unique complexities and challenges faced by today’s global firms present different implications for the RBV and its application to strategic IHRM. For example, because a large amount of the international management literature focuses on variances in cultural, geographical, and institutional pressures; the implications for applying the RBV become more complex. As MNCs struggle to create and integrate their practices across borders, they are faced with unique challenges that either push for global efficiency or local responsiveness. These challenges open the discussion for ways to actually manage both the creation and integration of knowledge on a global scale. This means that the questions typically asked by strategic IHRM scholars (e. g. , HR practices and performance) should be augmented with questions of how HR practices are created and integrated in ways that lead toward resource heterogeneity and immobility. To create a sustainable competitive advantage firms must not only be able to respond to their local environments or standardize their practices across the firm. They must be able to balance a tension of practice heterogeneity through local practice creation and immobility of those practices through their integration across the firm. One theoretical implication of this discussion calls for a greater understanding of the rents found through the creation and integration of HR practices. As Chadwick and Dabu (2004) explain, a marriage of rent concepts with theories of the firm (i. e. RBV) is essential to describing firm’s competitive advantages and particularly in understanding how actors within firms can take conscious steps to toward a sustainable competitive advantage. The current strategic IHRM literature strongly alludes to the importance of integration and being able to Page 17 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 organize heterogeneous resources in a way that is diff icult for competitors to imitate. The assumption here is that heterogeneity and immobility of resources creates greater performance or rents arising from scarcity—Ricardian rents (cf. , Carpenter, Sanders, Gregersen, 2001). In essence, Ricardian rents can be rooted in the cross-border integration of various HR practices. The integration of such practices not only assures that some of them will be unique to the firm, but that they will be difficult for others to imitate—making them scarce in the market. The advantages that come from constant creation of HR practices operates under a different principle than traditional resources leading to Ricardian rents. Rather than rents arising from scarcity, the creation capability perspective emphasizes rents arising from market discontinuities—Schumpeterian rents (cf. Carpenter et al. , 2001). Schumpeterian rents derive from a firm’s ability to exploit or leverage resources to address changing environments (Teece et al. , 1997; Amit & Schoemaker, 1993). Based on Schumpeterian rents, a focus on the continuous creation of resources can enable a firm to achieve competitive advantage on a sustainable basis by developing new practices that lead to practice heterogeneity across a complex and ambiguous global network. Hence, as mentioned by Lado and Wilson (1994) and Teece et al. 1997), turning to these dynamic capabilities as an extended approach to the RBV offers a closer understanding of the actual sources of competitive advantage in a changing global environment. While we discuss the main mechanisms driving knowledge creation and integration (Grant, 1996), aspects of integration tend to focus on a broad array of learning processes, including knowledge sharing, transfer, codification, adoption, and/or institutionalization. Further research should look at how different aspects of the integration process might be influenced by specific human, social, and organizational capital mechanisms. For example, Hansen and Haas (2001) showed that many firms have little difficulty in sharing knowledge across various units of the firm, but that the actual application or institutionalization of this knowledge is a completely different matter. While other scholars such as Kogut and Zander (1992) and Schulz (2001) have theoretically separated integration to include transfer and integration (or combination), very Page 18 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 little practical research has been done on what factors might influence the transfer and what factors might influence the integration of knowledge. Clearly, there must be differences since research such as Hansen and Haas’ (2001) notice the disparity in knowledge that is shared and knowledge that is actually applied. Also, while the ideas presented in this chapter are rooted in theory, empirical research is needed to determine the impact of human, social,, and organizational capital on knowledge creation and integration capabilities. While theory suggests that aspects of all three of these factors will influence both capabilities, it is most probable that aspects of human capital will more strongly influence the creative capability. This is largely due to the fact that people and their knowledge and skills are what allows the different HR affiliates the ability to develop local practices on their own, without interference or supervision from regional or corporate headquarters. Similarly, social and organizational capital should have their strongest influences on the integrative capability. This is due, in part, to the conduits and repositories created from aspects of social capital and organizational capital, respectively. In fact, as we mentioned earlier, some aspects of organizational capital might have a negative effect on the firm’s ability to create new practices (knowledge), while some aspects of human capital may have a negative effect on the firm’s ability to integrate those practices across affiliates. Conclusion The purpose of this chapter has been to summarize the literature on RBV and IHRM in multinational firms by addressing the ways in which resource heterogeneity and immobility provide potential advantages to MNCs. However, we have also attempted to extend the RBV in this context by addressing some of the primary challenges of—and capabilities needed to— integrate resources across business units within the MNC. The solution frequently used by firms has been to standardize HR practices and policies at a global level, but this solves the integration problem while destroying the advantages of local Page 19 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 variety. The challenge as we see it is identifying how firms can preserve variety (and local customization) while simultaneously establishing a foundation for integration and efficiency. The ability for HR managers to balance this tension lies in the development of capabilities to create and integrate practices across the global HR function. We extended traditional views of RBV to include aspects of practice integration and creation. Such capabilities allow firms to constantly renew their HR practices in a way that allows them to respond to multiple external pressures while being coordinated and integrated to ensure that these practices drive the firm’s sustainable competitive advantage. Page 20 International Human Resources References CAHRS WP05-16 Amit, R. , & Schoemaker, P. J. H. 993. Strategic assets and organizational rent. Strategic Management Journal, 14: 33-46. Bae, J. , & Lawler, J. J. 2000. Organizational and HRM strategies in Korea: Impact on firm performance in an emerging economy. Academy of Management Journal, 43: 502-517. Barney, J. B. 1991. Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Management, 17: 99-120. Barney, J. B. , & Hoskisson, R. 1989. Strategic groups: Untested assertions and research proposals. Managerial and Decision Economics, 11: 187-198. Bartlett C. A. , & Ghoshal, S. 1989. Managing Across Borders: The Transnational Solution. Hutchinson Business Books. Birkinshaw, J. 1997. Entrepreneurship in multinational corporations: The characteristics of subsidiary initiatives. Strategic Management Journal, 18: 207-229. Boxall, P. 1996. The strategic HRM debate and the resource-based view of the firm. Human Resource Management Journal, 6: 59-75. Burt, R. S. 1982. Toward a structural theory of action. New York: Academic Press. Carpenter, M. , Sanders, Wm. G. , & Gregersen, H. B. 2001. Bundling human capital with organizational context: The impact of international assignment experience on multinational firm performance and CEO pay. Academy of Management Journal, 44: 493-511. Chadwick, C. , & Cappelli, P. 1999. Alternatives to generic strategy typologies in strategic human resource management. In L. D. Dyer, P. M. Wright, J. W. Boudreau, and G. T. Milkovich’s (eds. ) Strategic Human Resource Management in the Twenty-First Century. Stamford, CT: JAI Press. Chadwick, C. , & Dabu, A. 2004. Rent theories, human assets, human resource management, and competitive advantage. Working Papar. Daft, R. L. , & Weick, K. E. 1984. Toward a model of organizations as interpretation systems. Academy of Management Review, 9: 284-295. Doz, Y. & Prahalad, C. K. 1986. Controlled variety: A challenge for human resource management in the MNC. Human Resource Management, 25: 55-72. Evans, P. A. L. , & Doz, Y. 1992. Dualities: A paradigm for human resource and organizational development in complex multinationals. In V. Pucik, N. M. Tichy, & C. K. Barnett’s (eds. ) Globalizing Management: Creating and Leading the Competitive Organization. New York: Wiley. Evan, P. , Pucik, V. , & Barsoux, J-L. 2002. The global challenge: Frameworks for international human resource management. New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin. Fey, C. F. , & Bjorkman, I. 2001. The effect of human resource management practices on MNC subsidiary performance in Russia. Journal of International Business Studies, 32: 59-75. Page 21 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 Ghoshal, S. , & Bartlett, C. A. 1988. Creation, adoption, and diffusion of innovation by subsidiaries of multinational corporations. Journal of International Business Studies, 19: 365388. Ghoshal, S. , & Bartlett, C. A. 1990. The multinational corporation as an interorganizational network. Academy of Management Review, 15: 603-625. Grant, R. M. 1996. Toward a knowledge-based theory of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 17(S2): 109-122. Gregersen, H. B. , & Black, J. S. 1992. Antecedents to commitment to a parent company and a foreign operation. Academy of Management Journal, 35: 65-91. Haas, M. R. 2004. Cosmopolitans and locals: Knowledge gathering and project quality in international teams. Working Paper. Hansen, M. T. 2002. Knowledge networks: Explaining effective knowledge sharing in multiunit companies. Organization Science, 13: 290-302. Hansen, M. T. , & Haas, M. R. 2001. Compteting for attention in knowledge markets: Electronic document dissemination in a management consulting company. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46: 1-28. Hedlund, G. 1986. The hypermodern MNC: A heterarchy? Human Resource Management, 25: 9-35. Kogut, B. , & Zander, U. 1992. Knowledge of the firm, combination capabilities, and the replication of technology. Organization Science, 7: 502-518. Kogut, B. , & Zander, U. 1993. Knowledge of the firm and the evolutionary theory of the multinational corporation. Journal of International Business Studies, 24: 625-645. Kostova, T. , & Roth, K. 2002. Adoption of an organizational practice by subsidiaries of multinational corporations: Institutional and relational effects. Academy of Management Journal, 45: 215-233. Lado, A. A. , & Wilson, M. C. 1994. Human resource systems and sustained competitive advantage: A competency-based perspective. Academy of Management Review, 19: 699-727. Lepak, D. P. , & Snell, S. A. 1999. The human resource architecture: Toward a theory of human capital allocation and development. Academy of Management Review, 24: 31-48. Lippman, S. , & Rumelt, R. 1982. Uncertain imitability: An analysis of interfirm differences in efficiency under competition. Bell Journal of Economics, 13: 418-438. MacDuffie, J. P. 1995. Human resource bundles and manufacturing performance: Organizational logic and flexible production systems in the world auto industry. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 48: 197-221. March, J. G. 1991. Exploration and exploitation in organizational learning. Organization Science, 2: 71-87. Page 22 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 McEvily, B. , & Zaheer, A. 1999. Bridging ties: A source of firm heterogeneity in competitive capabilities. Strategic Management Journal, 20: 1133-1145. McWilliams, A. , Van Fleet, D. D. , & Wright, P. M. 2001. Strategic management of human resources for global competitive advantage. Journal of Business Strategies, 18: 1-23. Mendenhall, M. E. , & Stahl, G. K. 2000. Expatriate training and development: Where do we go from here? Human Resource Management, 39: 251-266. Nahapiet, J. , & Ghoshal, S. 1998. Social capital, intellectual capital, and the organizational advantage. Academy of Management Review, 23: 242-266. Ricks, D. 1993. Blunders in international business. Cambridge: Blackwell Business. Schuler, R. S. , Dowling, P. J. , & DeCieri, H. 1993. An integrative framework of strategic international human resource management. Journal of Management, 19: 419-460. Schulz, M. 2001. The uncertain relevance of newness: Organizational learning and knowledge flows. Academy of Management Journal, 44: 661-681. Snell, S. A. , Snow, C. C. , Canney Davison, S. & Hambrick, D. C. 1998. Designing and supporting transnational teams: The human resource agenda. Human Resource Management, 37(2): 147-158. Snell, S. A. , Stueber, D. & Lepak, D. P. 2002. Virtual HR departments: Getting out of the middle. In R. L. Heneman and D. B. Greenberger (eds. ) Human resource management in virtual organizations, Information Age Publishing. Snell, S. A. , Youndt, M. A. & Wright, P. M. 1996. Establishing a framework for research in strategic human resource management: Merging resource theory and organizational learning. Research in Personnel and Human Resource Management, 14: 61-90. Sparrow, P. , Schuler, R. S. , & Jackson, S. E. 1994. Convergence or divergence: Human resource practices and policies for competitive advantage worldwide. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 5: 267-299. Stasser, G. , Stewart, D. D. , & Wittenbaum, G. M. 1995. Export roles and information exchange during discussion: The importance of knowing who knows what. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 31: 244-265. Szulanski, G. 1995. Unpacking stickiness: An empirical investigation of the barriers to transfer best practices inside the firm. Academy of Management Journal, Best Paper Proceedings: 437-442. Szulanski, G. 1996. Exploring internal stickiness: Impediments to the transfer of best practice within the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 17: 27-44. Taylor, S. , Beechler, S. , & Napier, N. 1996. Toward an integrative model of strategic international human resource management. Academy of Management Review, 21: 959-985. Teece, D. 1977. Time-cost tradeoffs: Elasticity estimates and determinants for international technology transfer projects. Management Science, 23: 830-837. Page 23 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 Teece, D. J. , Pisano, G. , & Shuen, A. 1997. Dynamic capabilities and strategic management. Strategic Management Journal, 18: 509-534. Tsai, W. 2002. Social structure of coopetition within a multiunit organization: Coordination, competition, and intraorganziational knowledge sharing. Organization Science, 13: 179-192. Wernerfelt, B. 1984. A resource-based view of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 5: 171-180. Wright, P. M. , Dunford, B. B. , & Snell, S. A. 2001. Human resources and the resource based view of the firm. Journal of Management, 27: 701-721. Wright, P. M. , & McMahon, G. C. 1992. Alternative theoretical perspectives on strategic human resource management. Journal of Management, 18: 295-320. Wright, P. M. & Snell, S. A. 1998. Toward a unifying framework for exploring fit and flexibility in strategic human resource management. Academy of Management Review, 22 (4): 756-772. Youndt, M. A. , Subramaniam, M. , & Snell, S. A. 2004. Intellectual capital profiles: An examination of investments and returns. Journal of Management Studies, 41: 335-361. Page 24

Payroll questions assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Payroll questions - Assignment Example Claiming these tax credits will save the taxpayer hundreds of dollars when doing their income taxes. Whereas lieu in notice is more like compensatory damages where there is a breach of contract, the working notice is considered as an implied term in the contract of employment. The lieu of notice, in addition, will make it harder for the employee to find alternate employment (Opie 33). Legislated notice of individual termination requirements in Quebec differ from those in Manitoba in that a minimum notice period of 2 weeks is required where an employee in Quebec is employed for 1 to 5 years, while in Manitoba the same period is required but for employees working for 1 to 3 years (Opie 35). There are benefits to including the payroll in collective agreement negotiations for unionized organizations in that it will provide for payroll deductions of fair share payment, labor organization dues, assessments, and initiation fees (Opie 49). In case the collective agreement is either terminated or continues beyond its expiration date prior to negotiating a successor agreement, the employer will continue to abide by and honor any dues deductions contained in the previous agreement. This will avoid cases where employees wish to revoke unilaterally deductions when the collective agreement expires (Opie 49). The employer in Alberta is responsible solely for personal information under their control or custody, while an employer in British Columbia would be responsible for personal information under their control, which also includes personal information not in their custody (Opie 61). In addition, an employer in British Columbia is required to avail information to the public regarding the position title of all employees delegated under subsection (4) or designated under subsection (3) and contact information for employees indicated in paragraph (a) (Opie 63). This is not required for employers in

Describe three commonalities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Describe three commonalities - Essay Example The three sources portray professional educators as capable of influencing student behaviour and learning outcomes. Educators prepare students to become responsible people in the future. They empower them with skills such as effective communication and critical thinking (Conceptual Framework, 2015). Educators embrace the social needs of different students by showing respect to issues like culture. They prepare students to work in distinct settings. Educators should influence their students positively from both academic and personal perspectives (Professional Dispositions of Learners, 2015). Special educators create a positive impact on the lives of individuals with exceptionality by treating them fairly, helping them achieve academic excellence and implementing behaviour change disciplinary measures (Special Education Professional Ethical Principles and Practice Standards, 2010). Effective education professionals  exhibit integrity and ethical behaviour. Professional teachers are well educated and skilled. Additionally, they display a high level of commitment and compassion in their line of duty (Conceptual Framework, 2015). Professional behaviour towards students, colleagues and families amongst others is influenced by dispositions. Dispositions are the ethical standards and values that educators uphold, and they significantly influence various student learning processes including motivation and achievement (P. D.L, 2015). Professional ethical standards for special educators emphasize that educators display professional competence by exercising respect, integrity and commitment when serving individuals with exceptionalities (S.E.P.E. P.P.S, 2010). The named commonalities are important to teachers and students because they establish a foundation for teaching practises. They provide effective guidelines that when adhered to can result in academic excellence. The

Explain how the twenties were and were not so roaring Essay

Explain how the twenties were and were not so roaring - Essay Example s facilitated by influx of money in to the economies by soldiers from US and Canada who had just returned from War hence the production industry was forced to expand to meet the increased demand of goods. In 1921, President Harding signed the Emergency Tariff of 1921 which was aimed at reducing the tax rates, reducing the national debt and protecting the interests of the farmers. Overconfidence in the boom economy contributed to stock price speculation and excessive credit in the economy which led to the stock market crash and the Great Depression. The federal expenditure was increased in order to create new job opportunities and help the industries which were collapsing. The roaring twenties saw the development of transport system and other communication technology advancements (Kenney 115). There was development of electricity manufacturing power and by 1929 all the main industries relied on electricity. Steam power provided much of the energy needs at the onset of 1920s but this was overtaken by electricity power as the decade progressed. Mechanization of manufacturing industries progressed through the roaring twenties where new processes and methods of production were implemented. The roaring twenties also experienced mass production in the automobile industry and mass broadcasting medium invention like the radio and television. Sound recording was later invented hence businesses conducted mass advertisements through these new mediums (Kenney 116). Massive government expenditure was invested in railway construction, electrification and upgrading the highways in the hope that these new infrastructure was reap benefits in future. Most of the local governments were in huge debts. Urbanization increased in cities and demand of white collar jobs was high. Most of the States ratified Nineteenth Amendment which gave women the right to vote thus further sparking a series of women movements who demanded more rights for women and Blacks. The twenties also were marked

International Tourism Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

International Tourism Management - Essay Example In this concept, the definition of tourism helps to identify all the basic elements associated with the term tourism. The conceptual definition of tourism demonstrates the multi-faceted as well as the multi disciplinary characteristics of tourism. The technical definition of tourism clearly represents what one can understand from the word tourist and what is tourism industry. Technical definition helps to specify the different factors which help to recognize a set of people as traveler, as well as grouping different organization as a part of tourism sector. (Inkson and Minnaert, 2012, p.15). 2. Definition of Tourism: According to Inkson and Minnaert (2012), the movement of the people to different places outside their normal place of work or residence, various kinds of activities which they perform while staying on those places and different facilities developed by several organization as well as the concerned governing authority of that particular place is known as tourism. (Inkson a nd Minnaert, 2012, p.16). There are three basic elements associated with the tourism. These are dynamic element, destination element and consequential element. Dynamic Element: It is associated with the demand for and different types of tourism. According to their views, these forms are subject to change. Destination Element: It is associated with the tourist as well as the characteristics of them. ... (Inkson and Minnaert, 2012, p. 17). 3. Types of Tourism System: There are different kinds of tourism industry present in the tourism system. These are aviation industry, railways industry, tour and travel operators, hotel industry etc. In the tourism system, all these industries are interrelated with one another. With the development of science and technology, as the time moves on the tourism system also started to develop as well. The main focus of this paper is to discuss about different factors associated with the tourism industry, the growth in this industry in last 10 years with the continuous development in the technology and communication sector. Apart from that, a detail discussion will be done with the focus on aviation industry, its growth , development that happen to this sector due to technological and communication improvement and role played by the aviation sector in the overall growth of the tourism industry. 4. Aviation and Tourism: Transport is an indispensable part of tourism, providing the very important link between the tourist generating areas and destinations. Good convenience, which is determined by the transport services provided, is a basic condition for the expansion of any tourist destination. Moreover, the transport industry can be a main beneficiary of tourism because of the extra passenger demand that may be generated. Aviation is a progressively more important mode of transportation for tourism markets. At the same time geography has meant that, in modern times, air travel has always been the central mode for long distance travel and as much global tourism moves towards deregulation, and more specifically with the emergence of the low cost carrier

Voice traffic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Voice traffic - Essay Example The acceptance by the telecommunications industry to converge mobile concept aims at facilitating for the incorporation of voice over WiFi (Fathi, Chakraborty, & Prasad, 2011). Nonetheless, a number of benefits and issues are evident while sending voice over a typical wireless network as depicted by the paper. There are various benefits associated with sending voice over a wireless network. For instance, the major benefit of sending voice over wireless networks is saving costs. For instance, companies have managed to save billions of dollars by making calls over wireless networks. Furthermore, it is possible to deploy voice communication over a wireless network, creating room for flexible communication. As such, it is true that sending voice over wireless networks plays a vital role in realizing cost savings, particularly because it mobilizes the workforce. Here, they can manage to address the needs of clients in an efficient manner while in the facility being served by the wireless network. Regardless of the benefits affiliated with sending voice over a wireless network, a number of issues prevail, hindering companies from utilizing the full potential sending voice over wireless networks (Geier & Geier, 2010). For instance, sending voice over wireless networks is sensitive to technology. In this case, calls should be set up as well as authenticated, while voice packets are required to reach their destination without interruption and in a timely manner. As such, companies experience challenges when designing a network stream in a continuous manner, making it prone to interruptions by data transmissions that are less sensitive. As such, in a typical wireless network voice calls suffer from weird sounds, delays, echo, and noise (Geier & Geier, 2010). Sending voice over wireless networks is also highly dependent on bandwidth. As such,

Olympic games Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Olympic games - Essay Example The aggregate tally of the individuals who watched London Olympics amounted to 219 million. Upon observation of this trend, the media house chose to maximize the hours of coverage. Therefore, NBC showed the London Olympics for a total of 5,535 hours (Moraes, 1). This exhibits the massive and rampant figure of persons watching the Olympics. The united Greeks were the historical perpetuators of the Olympics. Olympic Games had their foremost occurrence in Greece (Toohey, 11). Therefore, the Greece people were the custodians of this culture of games. From Greece, Olympic Games stretched to other parts of the globe. Therefore, Greece was the birthplace of the Olympic Games culture. Inhabitants of Greece cherished the Olympics immensely throughout the nation. Their Olympic events would register a very high number of attendance and attention from the public (Toohey, 12). Other nations therefore observed this culture and incepted it in their native calendars. Ancient Greece was therefore the initiator of the Olympic Games culture. Greece was the source of the Olympic culture from antiquity. In the ninth century BC, there was no other nation with the Olympics. Therefore, the ninth century BC marked the approximate era of Olympic Games culture initiation in Greece (Toohey, 11). These were the times of the Ancient Greece community. The Olympic Games were part of the Greece culture during these times. They were a portion of a sacred tradition called the ekecheiria. The sacred tradition was also called the truce (Toohey, 19). It would entail maximum observation of peace for the participants in the Olympic Games to enjoy a harmonious environment. The tradition also had an objective to allow foreigners into the nation and travel back safely. Due to this peaceful environment, foreigners would come to Ancient Greece; enjoy the Olympic Games and travel home safely (Toohey, 19). In 1896, the other nations realized the essence of the

Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 5

Education - Essay Example The American government has put in place a body that sees to it that before a school is mandated to operate; whether as a private or public school, the school undergoes certain assessment process to ensure that it meets laid down criteria and standard. This assessment process is known as accreditation. Accreditation is important in ensuring that the freedom given to people to start schools is not abused and that parents and guardians get value for the money they spend in educating their wards. One area that the issuance of accreditation has become most popular and gained a lot of public attention is at the higher education level in the US. Higher Education System in US There are several types of higher education institutions in the United States. Some of these include: Research Universities, Doctorate-Granting Universities, Master's (Comprehensive) Universities and Colleges, Baccalaureate (Liberal Arts) Colleges, Associate of Arts Colleges, Professional Schools, Specialized Instituti ons, Postsecondary Vocational and Technical Schools. According to the U.S. Network for Education Information (USNEI), Washington (2001), â€Å"current data indicate that there are some 2,819 institutions offering a Bachelor's or higher degree; 2,657 institutions offering at least an associate's degree but less than a bachelor's degree; and 4,927 institutions offering shorter non-degree programmes of less than two years duration.† These schools offer educational credentials such as High School Diploma, Associate Degree, Certificate, Bachelor's Degree, Diploma, Education Specialist, First Professional Degree, Post-Bachelor's Diploma, Master's Degree, Certificate of Advanced Study and Doctorate. Thelin, J.R., Edwards, J.R & Moyen, E (2011) see the higher education system to be just more than a set of institutions that impart knowledge. To them, higher education in the United States is an established ‘knowledge industry’ that represents about 3 percent of the gross n ational product. To this effect, they claim that â€Å"virtually every governor and legislature across the nation evokes colleges and universities as critical to a state's economic and cultural development.† It is for the sake of this important role that higher education plays to the United States that it is important to ensure that products that are produced by higher education institutions are products worth the ‘market force’. Accreditation Agencies for Higher Education Accreditation of schools in the United States dates back to the 1800s. According to the Accrediting Council for Independent Schools and Colleges, ACICS (2011), â€Å"The first regional accrediting agencies formed in the 1880s with particular focus on educational standards and admissions procedures.† The agencies kept changing till in 1996, the Council for Higher Education Accreditation took over accreditation in the United States to oversee the works of accreditation agencies like ACICS and other public and private accreditation agencies. The Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) is generally responsible for accreditation of higher education

Incident Response, Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery Plans Case Study

Incident Response, Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery Plans - Case Study Example In addition, it is also compulsory to identify assets that may not limit to employees, information, hardware/network devices, financials, legal counsel, security and locations for facilitating BCP. The BCP increases the image of an organization among the employees, shareholders and consumers through representing a positive approach. Importantly, an effective BCP recognizes the link between human and assets. 15 Organizations are always at probable catastrophe for instances tornadoes, floods, blizzards, earthquakes and fire mishaps. However these are known natural disasters but other risks include power and energy distractions, sabotage, cyber assaults, hackers, infrastructure, transportation and security failure. Moreover, ecological disasters for example pollution and harmful materials spills are also a possible risk for organizations. Therefore, generating BCP ensures any organization is able to resolve any of the above crises. 16 The data related to the services or the goods that need to be delivered can be obtained through the mission statement of the organization. Moreover, the legal and delivering specifications of the products or the services can also be achieved via mission statement. The objective of the IT department states mission-critical functions and services for the organization. (this is my own constructed mission statement) 16 As the I.T department has not implemented a risk management and I.T service management framework, we were not able to find the required answers. (I have assumed these requirements, as there is no case study) 17 The additional expenses must be determined if the functions or procedures related to the business are untreatable. Moreover, this should also be taken into consideration that for the duration of time the functions can be operated without the hiring of additional staff. Similarly, the government regulations  regarding the fines, penalties, breaches must be determined and factored into the BCP budget. Risk management framework address risks that can be mitigated, transferred, void or accepted.

Health and Wellness in the Workplace Essay Example for Free

Health and Wellness in the Workplace Essay Thesis Statement: Health and Wellness programs in a workplace can benefit employees by helping them manage their physical and emotional health, reduce stress and provide a reward system program in the workplace. I. Introduction. II. Provide Nutrition Programs A. Manage employees physical emotional health 1. Provide different seminars to manage different health issues. 2. Create a program that fits your employees concerns in the work environment. III. Promotes employee’s perfect attendance A. Prevent employee’s absenteeism 1. By providing random wellness check 2. Reward employees for perfect attendance in the wellness programs IV. Reduce Stress in Workplace A. Provide breaks to help employees reduce stress 1. Start a group during 15 minutes break to walk 2. Provide a massage therapist once every two weeks to give 15 minutes massages to relief stress. 3. Give a stress management seminar for nutrition and excerising. V. Reward System in the workplace to accomplish Goals A. Provide a reward program to lose weight and stay healthily 1. A support system for employees by offering extra days off for doing the programs. 2. Create a bonus program for employees for reaching health goals. VI. Conclusion. Resources By: Alden, Sharyn, Regroup, Recharge, Credit Union Magazine, Jul 2007, Vol. 73 Issue 7, p 30-35, 6p; Abstract By: Bulk Tran Sporter, Tax credits proposed for employee wellness, Nov. 2007, Vol. 70, Issue 5, p12-12, 1/2p; Abstract By: Shepherd, Leah Carlson, More time to smell the

Endosymbiotic Theory of Eukaryotic Cell Development

Endosymbiotic Theory of Eukaryotic Cell Development Abstract The defining feature of eukaryotic cells is that they contain membrane-bound organelles and a true nucleus. The endosymbiotic theory is based upon the idea that eukaryotic cells evolved in steps beginning with the stable incorporation of chemo-organotrophic and phototrophic symbionts from the domain bacteria. This essay reviewed the evidence that supports this theory. After investigating the molecular, physiological and morphological evidence, it is almost certain that chloroplasts and mitochondria are from the domain bacteria, and that many of the genes required for the survival of these organelles are contained within the nuclear DNA of the eukaryotic cell rather than the organelles own independent DNA. It is for this reason that I believe that endosymbiosis was the process whereby eukaryotes began to form and evolve. It was found that the genome of a protozoan, Reclinomonas, contained all the protein-coding found in sequenced mitochondrial genomes, providing support for the specul ative process of endosymbiotic gene transfer. The hydrogen hypothesis seems to be the most likely scenario for the formation of eukaryotes, which explains the need for compartmentalisation with increasing host genome size to improve efficiency of function throughout the cell, and the chimeric nature of eukaryotes. Introduction Based upon data collected from slow decaying radioactive isotopes, Earth is thought to have formed approximately 4.55 billion years ago. From this time of origin, a continual process of geological and physical change has occurred, which created conditions leading to the origin of life about 4 billion years ago. Life is thought to have undergone the process of evolution, defined as DNA sequence change and the inheritance of that change, often under the selective pressures of a changing environment. (1) Microfossil evidence suggests that unicellular eukaryotes arose on Earth approximately 2 billion years ago, after the development of an oxic environment and the invention of respiratory metabolism in cyanobacteria. This timing infers that the availability of oxygen was a large influence on the biological evolution that led to the emergence of Eukarya. (1) The defining characteristic of eukaryotes is the presence of a well-defined nucleus within each cell. (2) Typical eukaryotic cells contain a membrane bound nucleus and organelles enclosed by an outer plasma membrane; these organelles are organised into compartmentalised structures which have their own function(s) within the cell, often working together with other organelles to complete vital biological processes. This compartmentation in cells is essential in organisms as it allows differing compositions of nutrients to exist inside each compartment as opposed to outside, creating perfect conditions for biochemical reactions to occur.(3) The differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes are shown in Table 1: Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles found in the cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells and are most concentrated in cells associated with active processes, such as muscle cells which constantly require energy for muscle contraction. The two surrounding membranes that encompass a mitochondrion differ in function and composition, creating distinct compartments within the organelle. The outer membrane is regular in appearance and composed of proteins and lipids, in roughly equal measure, whilst the outer membrane contains porin proteins rendering it more permeable. The inner membrane is only freely permeable to oxygen, water and carbon dioxide; it contains many infoldings, or cristae, that protrude into the central matrix space, significantly increasing the surface area and giving it an irregular shape. As can be seen in Figure 1, mitochondria contain ribosomes and have their own genetic material, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), separate from the nuclear DNA. (4) Mitochondria are the principle sites of ATP production- in a process known as oxidative phosphorylation. Products of the Krebs cycle, NADH + H+ and FADH2, are carried forward to the electron transport chain (ETC) and are oxidised to NAD+ and FAD, releasing hydrogen atoms. These hydrogen atoms split to produce protons and electrons, and the electrons are passed down the ETC between electron carriers, losing energy at each level. This energy is utilised by pumping the protons into the intermembranal space causing an electrochemical gradient between the intermembranal space and the mitochondrial matrix. The protons diffuse down the electrochemical gradient through specific channels on the stalked particles of the cristae, where ATPsynthase located at the stalked particles, supplies electrical potential energy to convert ADP and inorganic phosphate to ATP. In mammalian cells, enzymes in the inner mitochondrial membrane and central matrix space carry out the terminal stages of glucose and fatty acid oxidation in the process of ATP synthesis. Mitochondria also play an important role in the regulation of ionised calcium concentration within cells, largely due to their ability to accumulate substantial amounts of calcium. (3)(5) Chloroplasts are membrane-bound organelles found within photosynthetic eukaryotes. Chloroplasts are surrounded by a double membrane, the outer membrane being regular in appearance whilst the inner membrane contains infoldings to form an interconnected system of disc-shaped sacs named thylakoids. These are often arranged in to stacks called grana. Enclosed within the inner membrane of the chloroplast is a fluid-filled region called the stroma, containing water and the enzymes necessary for the light-independent reactions (the Calvin cycle) in photosynthesis. The thylakoid membrane is the site of the light dependent reactions in photosynthesis, and contains photosynthetic pigments (such as chlorophyll and carotenoids) and electron transport chains. Chloroplasts, like mitochondria, contain ribosomes and their own independent DNA (ctDNA), which is central to the theory of endosymbiosis. The structure of a typical chloroplast is shown by Figure 2: Radiant energy is trapped by photosynthetic pigments and used to excite electrons in order to produce ATP by photophosphorylation. The light dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membrane (Photosystem II or P680) and ultimately, these reactions produce the ATP and NADPH required for photosynthesis to continue in the stroma (where Photosystem I or P700 is located). A series of light independent reactions occur within the stroma producing carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water using ATP and NADPH. The most supported hypothesis (put forward by Lynn Margulis) for the origin of the eukaryotic cell is that of endosymbiosis which is suitably named as symbiosis occurs when two different species benefit from living and working together. When one organism actually lives inside the other its called endosymbiosis.'(6) The endosymbiosis hypothesis states that the modern, or organelle-containing eukaryotic cell evolved in steps through the stable incorporation of chemo-organotrophic and phototrophic symbionts from the domain Bacteria. In other words, chloroplasts and mitochondria of modern-day eukaryotes arose from the stable incorporation into a second type of cell of a chemoorganotrophic bacterium, which underwent facultative aerobic respiration, and a cyanobacterium, which carried out oxygenic photosynthesis. The beneficial association between the engulfed prokaryote and eukaryote would have given the eukaryote an advantage over neighbouring cells, and the theory is that the prokaryote and eukaryote lost the ability to live independently. (1) Oxygen was an important factor in endosymbiosis and in the rise of the eukaryotic cell through its production in photosynthesis by the ancestor of the chloroplast and its consumption in energy-producing metabolic processes by the ancestor of the mitochondrion. It is worth noting that eukaryotes underwent rapid evolution, most probably due to their ability to exploit sunlight for energy and the greater yields of energy released by aerobic respiration. Support for the endosymbiosis hypothesis can be found in the physiology and metabolism of mitochondria and chloroplasts, as well as the structure and sequence of their genomes.(1) Similarities between modern-day chloroplasts, mitochondria, and prokaryotes relative to eukaryotes are shown in table 2: Molecular Evidence When Margulis proposed the endosymbiotic theory, she predicted that if the organelles really were prokaryotic symbionts, they would contain their own independent DNA. This was proven to be the case in the 1980s for mitochondria and chloroplasts.(7)Furthermore, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was found to have a proportionally higher ratio of guanine-cytosine base pairs than in eukaryotic nuclear DNA, as found in bacteria. These findings are significant as they strongly suggest that mitochondria and chloroplasts are of prokaryotic origin and nature, supporting the possibility that the eukaryotic cell evolved from the stable incorporation of symbionts from the domain Bacteria. Another striking similarity between mitochondria and bacteria is that they both contain 70S ribosomes and contain a comparable order of genes encoding ribosomal proteins a shown in Figure 4: It is only fair that the molecular problems associated with the endosymbiosis hypothesis that have been put forward are considered. Firstly, mitochondria and chloroplasts can only arise from pre-existing mitochondria and chloroplasts, having lost many essential genes needed for survival. It has been suggested that this is because of the large timespan that the mitochondria/chloroplasts have co-existed. During this time, systems and genes that were no longer needed were either simply deleted or transferred into the host genome. Hence, mitochondria and chloroplasts have lost the ability to live independently over time. This supports the endosymbiotic theory as it provides a reason as to why the ancestors of the chloroplasts and mitochondria were able to survive independently whilst chloroplast and mitochondria are unable to do so now. The study of mitochondrial genomes so far has suggested that mitochondrial genomes actually encode less than 70 of the proteins that mitochondria need to function; most being encoded by the nuclear genome and targeted to mitochondria using protein import machinery that is specific to this organelle.(7) It has been found that the genome of Reclinomonas contains all the protein-coding genes found in all the sequenced mitochondrial genomes: (8) The importance of Figure 5 is that it shows that the mitochondrial genome no longer contains many of the protein-coding genes, and hence, mitochondria are no longer able to live independently. The mitochondrial endosymbiont is believed to have belonged to the proteobacteria since several genes and proteins still encoded by the mitochondrial genome branch in molecular trees among homologues from this group. Interestingly, mitochondrial proteins such as the 60- and 70-kDa heat shock proteins (Hsp60, Hsp70), also branch amongst proteobacterial homologues, but the genes are encoded by the host nuclear genome.(9) This can be explained by a theory called endosymbiotic gene transfer which states that during the course of mitochondrial genome reduction, genes were transferred from the endosymbionts genome to the hosts chromosomes, but the encoded proteins were reimported into the organelle where they originally functioned. (7) This theory is central to the endosymbiotic theory, as it explain s the inability of chloroplasts and mitochondria to live independently even though these organelles are believed to have originated from the domain Bacteria. It is also believed that this gene transfer has provided an essential way in which mitochondrial or chloroplast activity can be regulated. The studies of protists raise  the possibility that mitochondria originated at essentially  the same time as the nuclear component of the eukaryotic cell  rather than in a separate, subsequent event. (10) T This would fit in with the hydrogen hypothesis as described later. A further problem to consider is the extent to which genes were transferred to the cell nucleus. Why did some genes remain in the cytoplasmic organelles? This question has been addressed by the Co-location for  Redox  Regulation (CoRR) hypothesis, which states that the location of  genetic information  in  cytoplasmic  organelles  permits regulation of its expression by the reduction-oxidation  (redox) state of its  gene products. Therefore, evolution by natural selection would have favoured mitochondrial or chloroplast cells that had deleted or transferred some genes to the host genome but had kept those that were still beneficial in the regulation of the organelles activity. (11) Physiological Evidence Evidence for the endosymbiosis theory can be found in the physiology of mitochondria and chloroplasts. For example, both mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own protein-synthesising machinery which closely resembles that of Bacteria rather than that of Eukaryotes. Ribosome function in mitochondria and chloroplasts are inhibited by the same antibiotics that inhibit ribosome function in free-living bacteria. Hence, it is no surprise that both these organelles contain 70S ribosomes typical of prokaryotic cells, and show 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences, a characteristic of certain Bacteria such as Escherichia coli.(1) For example, human mitochondrial ribosomes can be affected by chloramphenicol (an antibiotic used to inhibit protein synthesis), further evidence that mitochondria are likely to be of bacterial origin. Chloramphenicol is a relatively simple molecule containing a nitrobenzene ring responsible for some of the toxicity problems associated with the drug: Chloramphenicol inhibits protein synthesis due to its high affinity for the large (50S) ribosomal subunit, which when bound to chloramphenicol, blocks the action of peptidyl transferase, preventing peptide bond synthesis. It has also been discovered that chloramphenicol prevents the maturation of the 30S ribosomal subunits, decreasing the number of competent subunits and significantly decreasing the proportion of mitochondrial ribonucleoprotein present as monomers. (12) Also, the antibiotic rifampicin which inhibits the RNA polymerase of Bacteria has been found to inhibit the RNA polymerase within bacteria. Proteins of chloroplast or mitochondrion origin, like bacteria, always use N-formylmethionine as their initiating amino acid of their transcript.(13) Mitochondria replicate, like bacteria, only by the process of binary fission inferring that mitochondria did indeed originate from prokaryotes. The completion of the genome sequence of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis, has provided e vidence for the origin of chloroplast translocation apparatus. Just as the endosymbiosis theory predicts, analysis of this sequence showed that three key translocation components within chloroplasts, Toc75, Tic22 and Tic20, evolved from existing proteins within the cyanobacterial genome.(14)Mitochondria and chloroplasts have remarkably similar mechanisms by which ATP is produced. These ATP-generating pathways often include electron transport chains and proton pumps, similar to that found in prokaryotic energy production mechanisms. One of the most recent problems with the endosymbiosis theory is found within the physiology of mitochondria. Mounting evidence suggests that key components of the mitochondrial transcription and replication apparatus are derived from the T-odd lineage of  bacteriophage  rather than from an ÃŽÂ ±-Proteobacterium, as the endosymbiont hypothesis would predict.'(15) It has been discovered that three of the essential elements of the replication and transcription apparatus; the RNA polymerase, the replicative primase-helicase and the DNA polymerase do not resemble those of eubacteria as predicted by the symbiosis theory, but instead appears to resemble proteins encoded by T-odd bacteriophages. However, this does not disprove the theory of endosymbiosis as it is conceivable that numerous mitochondrial genes were acquired together from an ancestor of T-odd phage early in the formation of the eukaryotic cell, at the time when the mitochondrial symbiont was incorporated. (15) Morphological Evidence Another characteristic that further supports the hypothesis is that mitochondria and chloroplasts contain small amounts of DNA that is different from that of the cell nucleus which is arranged in a covalently closed, circular structure, with no associated histones, typical of Bacteria. Mitochondria are surrounded by two membranes, separated by the inter-membranal space and each with a different composition. Mitochondrial membranes more closely resemble membranes found in Gram-negative bacteria in terms of lipid composition than eukaryotic membranes. (16) The inner-membrane infoldings in the mitochondria lends more credibility to the endosymbiosis theory as the cristae are adaptations that increase the surface area of oxidative enzymes, evolutionary analogues to the mesosomal membranes of many prokaryotes (16)Further evidence that mitochondria and chloroplasts are of a prokaryotic origin is the lack of cholesterol in their membranes. This is significant because it is an essential stru ctural component in many eukaryotic membranes, mainly in mammalian cell membrane, but it almost completely absent amongst prokaryotes. Another problem is that recent genetic analysis of small eukaryotes that lack many characteristics that are associated with eukaryotic cells, most importantly mitochondria, show that they all still retain genes involved in the synthesis of mitochondrial proteins. In 1983, the taxon Archezoa was proposed to unite this group of odd eukaryotes, and the belief was that these cells had diverged from other eukaryotes before these characteristics evolved and hence represented primitive eukaryotic lineages. Before the recent genetic breakthrough that shows that these eukaryotes contain genes involved in mitochondrial protein synthesis, molecular work supported their primitive status, as they consistently fell deep into the branches of eukaryotic trees. This recent genetic analysis implies that all these eukaryotes once had mitochondria, suggesting that they evolved after the mitochondrial symbiosis. There is also the question of how the eukaryotic cell arose, including the nature and propert ies of the cell that acquired mitochondria and later chloroplasts, and how the nuclear membrane was formed which touches upon the compatmentalisation within cells and its importance in the functioning of the eukaryotic cell. (7) Formation of the eukaryotic cell There have been two hypotheses put forward to explain how the eukaryotic cell arose. One states that eukaryotes started as a nucleus-bearing lineage that later acquired the bacterial ancestor of the mitochondrion and the cyanobacterial ancestor of the chloroplast by the process of endosymbiosis. This nucleated line then diverged into the lineages giving rise to animals and plants. It is thought that the nucleus arose spontaneously in an early cell. One possible cause for the spontaneous formation of the nucleus is that it arose in response to the increasing genome size of early eukaryotes. (1) The second hypothesis, also known as the hydrogen hypothesis, states that the bacterial ancestor of the mitochondrion was taken up by a member of the Archaea via endosymbiosis, and from this association, the nucleus later emerged, followed by a later acquisition of the cyanobacterial ancestor of the chloroplast. The main difference between these two hypotheses is the position of the mitochondrion relative to the formation of the nucleus in time and hence on the universal phylogenetic tree. The hydrogen hypothesis put forward by William F. Martin and Miklos Muller in 1998, proposes that the eukaryotic cell arose from a symbiotic association of an anaerobic, hydrogen dependent, autotrophic archaebacterium (the host) with a hydrogen producing, oxygen consuming eubacterium (the symbiont), which released molecular hydrogen as a waste product of anaerobic heterotrophic metabolism. (17) The dependence of the host upon the molecular hydrogen as an energy source, produced as a waste product b y the symbiont is thought to be what lead to the association. In this scenario, the nucleus arose following the formation of this stable association between these two kinds of cells, and genes involved in lipid synthesis were transferred from the symbiont to the host chromosome. This may have lead to the synthesis of bacterial (symbiont) lipids by the host, eventually leading to the creation of an internal membrane system, the endoplasmic reticulum and the early stages of a eukaryotic nucleus. As the size of the host genome increased with time, changes were made to maximise the efficiency of replication and gene expression via the process of evolution. Hence, over time, this kind of cell compartmentalised and sequestered the genetic coding information within a protected membrane away from the cytoplasm. The formation of a mitochondrion-containing nucleated cell line was complete, which then later acquired chloroplasts by endosymbiosis. The hydrogen hypothesis has explains the observ ation that eukaryotes are of chimeric nature, containing attributes of both Bacteria and Archaea. (1) Conclusions In summary, molecular, physiological and morphological evidence can be found to support the endosymbiosis theory put forward by Lynn Margulis. Most compelling of which is the numerous similarities between organelles such as chloroplasts and mitochondria with prokaryotes, coupled with the inability of the organelles to live independently despite having their own independent DNA due to most of the genes required for the survival of the organelle being stored in the nuclear DNA of the host. The importance of this should not be underestimated, as it does all but prove that the ancestors of mitochondria and chloroplasts were of a prokaryotic origin and thus were once able to live independently. Therefore, this does lend credibility to the endosymbiosis theory as the symbionts that were allegedly incorporated were likely to have been from the domain bacteria, and that something must have occurred which stopped the symbionts being able to live independently, an event which many scientists n ow believe to be the process of endosymbiotic gene transfer. The hydrogen hypothesis appears to be the likely scenario for how the eukaryotic cell evolved, as it explains the formation of the nucleus as being a response to the growing size of the nuclear genome of the host, which would have maximised efficiency of gene expression. Endosymbiosis also explains why the eukaryotic cell appears to be of a chimeric nature; containing attributes of Archaea (e.g. similar transcription and translation apparatus) and Bacteria (e.g. contain same type of lipids).